Figure 1. Schematic of the spatial-association task. A, At the beginning of the session-1 learning phase, each object was initially presented in a unique screen location on a 1024 × 768 pixel (26.67 × 20 cm) grid, viewed from a distance of 92 cm. After all learning trials, participants completed the first cued-recall test (T1). In this test, objects were shown in the center of the screen and participants were prompted to move each object to its original location. B, At session 2, EEG was recorded while participants completed the second cued-recall test (T2). For the Active condition, participants viewed each object for 1500 ms and then were prompted to move the object to its original location. For the Covert condition, participants prepared to recall the original location as in the Active condition, and likely attempted to retrieve the location during this time, but they had no opportunity to move the object. Trials in the Active and Covert conditions were randomly intermixed. C, At session 3, participants completed the final cued-recall test (T3). D, The original location for one example object in the Active condition is labeled “Study.” Solid white lines depict the distance the object was placed from the study location at each test. Typical errors made on each of the three tests as shown: mean error of 3.59 cm at T1, mean error of 4.73 cm at T2 (Active condition only), and mean error of 5.01 cm at T3. The dashed white line depicts the distance the object was placed from the T2 retrieved location at the final test (retrieval bias distance).